FACTORS AND EFFECTS OF PEER GROUP INFLUENCE ON ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE
EFFECT OF PEER GROUP INFLUENCE ON ACADEMIC
PERFORMANCE OF ADOLESCENT STUDENTS IN NIGER STATE
BY
IDRIS ABDULLAHI
(Bsc. Business Admin)
ABSTRACT
This research work was carried out to examine
the factors and effects of peer group influence on academic performance of Adolescent
Students in Niger State. The research methodology utilizes descriptive
statistics with simple numbers and percentages and correlation analysis in the
analysis and synthesizing of primary sources of data collected via
questionnaire, as well as diverse literature on the area of study. Chi-square
was used in the testing of hypothesis posited. However, this study
revealed that; peer group has a significant influence on the
academic performance of adolescent students. It
is therefore, recommended that, Teachers and other education practitioners and
those in related professional training, need to have knowledge of the effects
of peer group pressure and understanding of the issues surrounding negative
peer influence to prevent negative peer group influence and be more adequately
prepared to help a teenager facing negative aspects of peer pressure.
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of the study
Adolescence
is a time of transformation in many areas of an individual’s life. In the midst
of these rapid physical, emotional, and social changes, youth begin to question
adult standards and the need for parental guidance. (Nicole, 2004 in Castrogiovanni, 2002). It is also a time for individuals to make important
decisions about their commitment to academics, family, and perhaps religion.
Young adults begin to ask questions such as, “Is school important to me?” and
“How do I want to spend my time?” The choices that adolescents make regarding
their motivation, engagement, and achievement in school (and in life) and the
satisfaction they obtain from their choices depend, in part, on the context in
which they make such choices (Ryan, 2000 as cited in Castrogiovanni,
2002).
Teachers,
parents, and peers all provide adolescents/students with suggestions and
feedback about what they should think and how they should behave in social
situations. These models can be a source of motivation or a lack thereof.
Modelling refers to individual changes in cognition, behaviour, or effects that
result from the observation of others (Ryan, 2000 in Castrogiovanni, 2002). Observing others perform a particular behaviour or voice
a certain opinion can introduce an individual to new behaviours and viewpoints
that may be different from his or her own. Observation also enlightens an
individual on the consequences of such behaviour and opinions. Depending on
these consequences, observation of a model can strengthen or weaken the
likelihood the observer will engage in such behaviour or adopt such beliefs in
the future.
Peer group effect/influence is an important component in determination
of student outcomes. A typical student learns from discussions with his peers
and can possibly be affected by their personality and attitude towards learning.
Peer students can also be motivated by working together. It is well established
that the quality of peers could affect a wide range of student outcomes from
school performance to health conditions or even juvenile criminal behaviour.
Economists have investigated in the peer effects for a variety of peers include
proximity based peers such as schoolmates. (Evans et al., 1992, Sacerdote,
2001, Hoel et al., 2005), classmates (Ammermueller and Pischke, 2009), or
linkage based peer, such as friendship (Cooley 2009, Bramoulle et al., 2009).Children’s peer relationships in the early grades
have consequences for children’s short-term and long-term school adjustment,
including academic achievement (Bierman, 2004; Ladd, 1990). The
most frequently studied aspects of peer relations are peer acceptance/rejection
and friendships. Low peer acceptance (or high peer rejection) forecasts school
avoidance and disaffected patterns of engagement from kindergarten through the
middle grades (Buhs & Ladd, 2001; Furrer & Skinner, 2003; Ladd, Birch, & Buhs, 1999; Wentzel, 1998).
Longitudinal studies with elementary students have clarified processes
responsible for the impact of peer acceptance on achievement, highlighting the
mediating roles of both classroom participation (Buhs, Ladd, & Herald, 2006) and self-perceived academic competence (Flook, Repetti, & Ullman,
2005). With
respect to the role of friends on achievement, having a close friend may
promote academic achievement due to the buffering effect of friendships on
children’s feelings of loneliness, which predicts lower academic motivation and
achievement (Kochenderfer & Ladd, 1996).
Peer
group is an important influence throughout one’s life but they are more
critical during the developmental years of childhood and adolescence.
Adolescents always emulate their mates in whatever form of behaviour they
exhibit, particularly that which interest them thus, since socialization only
refer to changes in behaviour, attitudes having their origin in interaction
with other persons and those which occur through integration, a child learn
more through interaction with peers. (Bierman, 2004; Ladd, 1990).
Socialization
being a life-long process cannot be limited to the family members alone. As a
child grows older and more matured, it become more necessary for the external
bodies to be involved in his/her life. The family is not expected to provide
all the education required by the growing child. The school which is an
established academic institution in which the behaviour of an individual is
sharpened to get him/her equipped for occupational socialization. In the school
system, the child gets into the social group of “like minds” and interest. As a
result of the various attitudes, skills, knowledge is acquired through
role-play. Peer group as an agent of socialization is the most important
socializing is the most important socializing agent for the developing child.
Peer group is the pivot of social change and during interaction peers; the
child’s life is transformed from the helpless child into a mature adult. (Bierman, 2004; Ladd, 1990).
According
to Peter and Pellegrini, (2001) each peer group has its code of conduct which
does not always conform to adult standards. The important thing is that each
child takes his/her membership of the peer very serious and attempts to do
anything to ensure he/she is accepted and recognized. Lack of acceptance by t
he peer disturbs the child especially at adolescent age. Some children have
been known to do badly in school not because they lack the academic ability to
do well but because they are disturbed by the fact they are not accepted by
their peer group. What makes learning comparative is the fact that the child
has equal status with the other children. There is an atmosphere of freedom in
which each child learns the way of the world from others. The peer group thus
becomes more and more important to the child as he advances in age. Other ways
in which the peer group can help the child include, teaching the culture of the
society at large, making possible social mobility, providing opportunity for
the child to play many social roles such as that of a leader, a follower,
teacher or student. The peer group also help the child to win his/her
independence easily from domination and set before him a goal which is more
easily attainable than the expectation of adults. This in itself provides motivation
for learning and is mainly responsible for the fact that all children at one
stage or the other regard their membership of peer group as very
important.
When
the family is not supportive for instance, if the parents work extra jobs and
are largely unavailable, their children may turn to their peer for emotional
support. This also occur when the conflict between parents and children during
adolescence or at any stage during a child’s development becomes so great that
the child feels pushed away and seeks company elsewhere. Most children and
adolescents in this position do not discriminate about the kind of group they
join. They will often turn to a group simply because the group accepts them
even if the group is involved in negative tendency. (Peter and Pellegrini,
2001). The need for affection or closeness is often greater than the need to do
the right thing. For some adolescents who feel isolated and abandoned by
members of their family being part of a peer group provides such individual with
acceptance and security not available at home. In the Nigerian society today,
the influence of peer group cannot be over emphasized in a child’s life most
especially child education. Peer group has in one way or the other influenced
the life of children both academically, socially, morally, psychologically and
otherwise. Socialization such as family, religion, mass media, and school among
others help in modifying the behaviour of the child.
1.2 Statement
of problem
Research has shown that most children who have positive peer
relationship (i.e. have friends and/or are liked by classmates) also do well
academically (Cohen, 2004; Ladd, Birch & Buhs, 1999; Ladd, Kochenderfer,
and Coleman, 1996; Ladd & Price, 1987; Wentzel & Caldwell, 1997); and
that children who are rejected by peers early on tend to encounter more
academic difficulties in later years (Ladd, 1990; Wentzel and Caldwell, 1997).
However, it remains unclear if children perform better academically during the
years they have more positive peer group experiences.
Children
socialize with the people with which they associate. Through interaction over
many years, acceptable social customs are taught and fostered. Other children
as well as adults can have a great impact on a broad range of issues in the
child’s life including achievement in schools. The research is geared towards
having a proper understanding of the way social interaction or peer group
influence affect academic achievement and it is very important for parents,
educators, and policy makers. The immediate environment such as peer, family,
school, religion and other factors can encourage or discourage student’s
academic performance.
1.3 Objective
of the study
The objectives of the study include:
I.
To examine the relevant
existing literature on the positive and negative effects of peer influence on
adolescent students academic performances.
II.
The research work also focuses
on how peer group influence relates to academic performance of adolescent
students, socialization, and other areas of concern to education-related
professionals.
III.
To identify the
positive and negative influence of peer group.
1.4 Research
Questions
To
guide this study, the following research questions were formulated:
I.
What are the influences of peer
group on Adolescent student’s academic performances?
II.
What do peer groups provide for
adolescents?
III.
How does peer group influence affect an
adolescent’s socialization?
IV.
What are some positive aspects
of peer influence?
V.
What leads to negative peer groups?
1.5 Research Hypothesis
Akuezilo, (1990) defined hypothesis as “a provisional
statement given to guide an investigation.” It is a tentative statement about a
phenomenon which may or may not be true.
The following hypothesis will be tested in the course of this
study:
·
Peer group influence has no any significant
effects on the academic
performance of Adolescent students.
·
Bad Peer group influence is not the cause
of student’s negative attitude at home and school.
1.6 Significance
of Study
The study will be helpful in the field of
education. It is important for students, parents, educators and policy
makers in understanding the way social interactions affect academic achievement. In particular academic
achievement and the often corresponding level
of the educational attainment tend to predict the average earnings an
individual may secure over a lifetime. For this reason, isolating the peer
effects on academic achievement will make a significant contribution to
education reform.
This
study will also provide an insight into the impact of peer group on academic
performance of adolescents.
1.7
Scope and delimitation of the study
The scope of the study is based on the influence of Peer
group on the academic performance of Secondary School Students in Shiroro Local
Government Area.
The
research work will be limited to the analysis based on the questionnaire
administered, and the relevant text (literature). Other limitation of the study
is: inability of the researcher to cover the entire population of the study,
money, time and distance.
1.8 Definition of Terms
I.
Peer
Group: Refers to
a group of people of same age or social status.
II.
Influence: The power of persons or
people to be a compelling force on effects on the action, behaviour of another
person.
III.
Academic performance: Evaluation of students’ expected performance on academic
activities in the classroom.
CHAPTER TWO
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
2.1
Conceptual Framework
Meaning
of Peer Group
According to Castrogiovanni (2002) a peer group is
defined as a small group of similarly aged; fairly close friends, sharing the
same activities. In general, peer groups or cliques have two to twelve members,
with an average of five or six. Peer groups provide a sense of security and
they help adolescents to build a sense of identity. The Oxford Advanced
Learners Dictionary, (2001) defined peer group as a group of people of same age
or social status. The peer group is the first social group outside the home in
which the child attempts to gain acceptance and recognition. Peer group is an
important influence throughout one’s life but they are more critical during the
developmental years of childhood and adolescence.
According to Santrock (2010), Peers are the individuals who
are about the same age or maturity level. Peer pressure is defined as when people your own age encourage or urge
you to do something or to keep from doing something else, no matter if you
personally want to do it or not (Ryan, 2000). The more subtle form of peer
pressure is known as peer influence, and it involves changing one’s behaviour
to meet the perceived expectations of others (Burns & Darling, 2002). In
general, most teens conform to peer pressure about fairly insignificant things
like music, clothing, or hairstyles. When it comes to more important issues
like moral values, parents still remain more influential than the peer.
What Peer Groups Provide for Adolescent Students
Educators and parents should be aware that peer groups provide a variety
of positive experiences for adolescents. Castrogiovanni (2002) cited the
following: the opportunity to learn how to interact with others; support in
defining identity, interests, Abilities, and personality; Autonomy without
control of adults and parents; Opportunities for witnessing the strategies
others use to cope with similar problems, and for observing how effective they
are; involved emotional support and; Building and maintaining friendships.
According to Black (2002), peer
groups provide a forum where teens construct and reconstruct their identities.
Castrogiovanni (2002) stated that at no other stage of development is one’s
sense of identity so unstable. A peer-labeling process may be contributing to
the construction of positive identities for some adolescents but negative
identities for others (Downs & Rose, 1991). Unfortunately, members of
groups may accept negative labels, incorporate them into their identity, and
through the process of secondary deviance, increase levels of deviant
behaviour. Teenagers learn about what is acceptable in their social group by
“reading” their friends’ reactions to how they act, what they wear, and what
they say. The peer group gives this potent feedback by their words and actions,
which either encourages or discourages certain behaviours and attitudes.
Anxiety can arise when teens try to predict how peers will react, and this
anxiety plays a large role in peer influence.
Burns and Darling (2002) stated
that self-conscious worrying about how others will react to future actions is
the most common way adolescents are influenced by their peers. When a teen who
takes an unpopular stand and goes against the expectations or norms of the peer
group, he or she is at risk for being ridiculed. Ridicule is not an easy thing
to accept at any age, let alone when you are twelve or thirteen years old. This
leads to the topic of peer pressure.
Positive Peer Group Influence
Contrary to popular belief, not all peer influence
is negative. Spending
more time
with peers does not always translate into trouble. Peer influence can, in fact,
keep youth participating in religious activities, going to meetings, and
playing on sports teams, even when they are not leaders (Lingren, 1995). The
peer group is a source of affection, sympathy, understanding, and a place for
experimentation. This factor is consistent with Bowmeister and Leary’s
“belongingness hypothesis” in that there is a genetically based need to belong.
The basic premise is that people of all ages seek inclusion and avoid
exclusion. Influence in these primary peer groups can vary from joining the
track team or drama club to motivation, engagement, and achievement in algebra
class. (Nicole, 2004).
As already suggested, students define themselves by the groups with
which they affiliate. Values that are important to most adolescents include:
school learning and achievement; social activities; and whether or not to
engage in delinquent activities. (Landau, 2002). Fischhoff, Cromwell, and Kipke
(1999) cited a systems theory perspective, arguing that groups that provide a
lot of positive feedback encourage action to maintain good feelings. These good
feelings are often reported in peer groups, and actions could lead to engaging
in risky behaviours to keep the “fun” going.
According to Ryan (2000), students who were identified as
“jock-populars” perceived more pressure in the area of school involvement and
less pressure toward misconduct than students identified as “druggie-toughs.”
Negative Peer Group Influence and its causes
While it is clear that peer groups can be positive for identity
formation, negative peers groups do exist and should be of concern to
education-related professionals. One aspect that may contribute to the
continuation of negative peer groups is passive acceptance of peer-group
structure. Teachers expect that students will behave in a certain way that is
consistent with their peer group affiliation and consequently make no attempt
to intervene with the structure. In other words, teachers passively accept the
“brain-nerd” differentiation. Another problem that arises in the school is
favouritism toward athletes. Athletes often receive more esteem in school and
are often seen by other students as receiving special treatment. Special
treatment could come in the form of more teacher-Student interaction or more
academic help from advisors. This extra attention given towards athletes can be
very discouraging for non-athletes and can spark jealousy. If educators focus
too much on the athletes and/or popular students, they may not even fully
notice a struggling student slip through the cracks. (Nicle, 2004).
An
additional drawback in the eyes of Alderman (2000) is ability tracking. Ability
tracking to him involves separating students based on their achievement in
school in the past. Ability grouping forces isolation among students at
different achievement levels, with each group forming its own peer culture. Low
achievers are isolated from models of achievement motivation and more effective
strategies to succeed. In essence, ability tracking forces students to form
groups that may not result in the best outcome. High achieving students can
benefit from interacting with low achieving students and “vice versa”.
According to Nocole, (2004) effort may be diluted when adults use
stereotypical images to either excuse or blame students on social identity
categories and crowds to which they belong. For example, a teacher may excuse
poor student test performance on the basis of family lifestyle, or instead blame
the family background for the performance. Blaming poor performance on
situational factors gets the student nowhere. Regardless of background,
students should be given equal opportunities to succeed and be treated just
like everyone else. Standards should be upheld and consequences for not
performing well on a test are not always a bad thing. Otherwise, the student
may also begin to blame the situational factors and give up trying.
Ways of Combating Negative Peer Pressure
Diminishing negative pressures involves
walking a fine line between taking an authoritative role and stepping back to
allow individual freedom. Teachers can increase their personal awareness of
adolescent social systems by investing more energy in getting to know their
students and the groups to which they belong. In the classroom, teachers should
avoid making achievement a game of winners and losers. One step to accomplish
this is to use criterion-based grading instead of grading on a curve. Most
importantly, the school system and community should enhance the status of
academic achievement. (Nocole, 2004).
Schools
should recognize academic excellence in areas outside of the core curriculum by
having trade fairs. It is important to avoid sending mixed messages about the
relative worth of academic versus non academic achievement. This involves being
aware of the peer-group social structure that operates in a particular school,
the norms that operate within each group, the relationship of one group to
another, as well as the loyalty student’s display towards their own group
(Alderman, 2000). Harnessing the power of peers can be important to create a
school climate supportive of academic excellence (Burns & Darling, 2002).
Nicole,
(2004) further pointed out that it would also be beneficial for adults and
families to abandon the stereotype of peer groups always being negative,
promoting positive peer relations, and perhaps setting up parent education
programs for families with teenagers. Establishing peer intervention programs
could target teens with poor social skills and aggressive tendencies. These
groups could teach appropriate ways to communicate, deal with anger, and even
raise self-esteem. There are some ways parents can cultivate teens’
self-confidence so they are not at risk for the negative peer influences. For
instance, adults can praise smart choices and compliment adolescents’
accomplishments. It is important for parents to get involved and know their
child’s friends, which could be accomplished by inviting them to the home,
carpooling, and asking appropriate questions. Questions like: “Where are you going?”
“Who will you be with?” and “When will you be home?” are traditional, but
crucial for parental involvement. Parents can also encourage activities that
are likely to include teens they approve of. These activities might include
after school clubs, church youth groups, and scouts. When teens are secretive
about new friends, they may be hiding individuals they know their parents will
not approve of.
If
a parent finds out that their teen is engaging in unacceptable behaviour with
their friends, the adult should be direct in addressing the issue and make
their expectations clear. It is always possible for parents to talk with school
counsellors and professionals to help with the problem. Overall, parents need
to be present in their adolescent’s lives. They should never underestimate the
value of quality time spent together. If parents have a busy schedule and
cannot be physically present, they should still make their presence felt in the
home through phone calls, personal notes, or other forms of communication.
Black
(2002) stated that teenagers with close ties to their parents were far less
likely to become delinquent or suffer depression than students who felt distant
from their families. The bottom line is that it is of utmost importance for
parents to be tolerant, patient, and show unconditional love during the teen
years, and to realize that adolescence is not terminal, it just feels like it
Peer Group Motivation, Engagement, and Academic Performance
Another important aspect of adolescent peer groups
is motivation. The
difference
between motivation and engagement is that motivation is more focused on student
cognition underlying involvement in schoolwork (i.e., beliefs) and engagement
is more focused on actual involvement in schoolwork (i.e., behaviour). Ryan
(2000) found that peer groups were influential regarding changes in students’
intrinsic value for school (i.e., liking and enjoying) as well as achievement
(i.e., report card grades).
The peer group was not, however, influential regarding changes in
students’ utility value for school (i.e., importance and usefulness). It was
found that associating with friends who have a positive affect toward school
enhanced students’ own satisfaction with school, whereas associating with
friends who have a negative affect toward school decreased it (Ryan, 2000).
Landau (2002) stated that an adolescent’s expectancy of success was the primary
predictor of academic effort and grades. A sense of belonging and support of a
peer group was also significantly associated with these outcomes.
Athletics, dating, and sexual behaviour, as well as alcohol, drug, and
tobacco use have been shown to be important to friendship choice in
adolescence. For some adolescents, other interests may compete with or take
charge over similar academic motivation and engagement as criteria for
selecting a peer group. This could put an adolescent’s motivation and
engagement in school in a precarious position (Ryan, 2000). Through selection,
some adolescents may place themselves in peer group situations that support or
foster their achievement-related beliefs and behaviours. Others may place
themselves in contexts that weaken achievement-related beliefs and behaviours.
Effect of peer group influence on academic
achievement of Adolescent students
academic
motivation and achievement, even if it is not veridical. This argument is
consistent with research on the effect of teacher expectations on achievement,
which demonstrates that teacher perceptions of children’s academic ability,
whether accurate or not, affect students’ grades and scores on standardized
achievement tests (Brophy, 1983; Jussim, Eccles, & Madon, 1996; Jussim & Harber, 2005). The teacher expectancy research has identified ways in which teachers
treat high and low expectation students differently that may account for the
expectancy-confirming impact of teacher expectations. For example, relative to
low expectancy students, teachers demonstrate a positive bias in evaluating the
work of high expectancy students (Jussim,1986; Jussim et al., 1996);
provide more response opportunities and praise and less criticism. Brophy, (1983);
provide more challenging instruction (Brophy, 1983; Jussim, 1986), and interact
in ways that are warmer and more accepting (Babad, 1992).
In a similar fashion, peers’ perceptions of classmates’ academic
competencies may influence their interactions with classmates in ways that
impact their achievement. The limited research on peer perceptions of
classmates’ academic ability is consistent with such a view. Studies with older
elementary and middle school students found that students prefer to work with
students whom they perceive as more academically capable on school-related tasks,
but this preference does not extend to non-academic tasks (Droege & Stipek, 1993; Plummer & Graziano, 1987), suggesting that peers’ perceptions of children’s abilities may
influence peer interactions in the classroom. It is likely that classmates
discuss among themselves the relative abilities of classmates. Through such
shared discourse, individual members of the class develop a reputation that is
largely shared by and reinforced by members of the class (Filby & Barnett, 1982). Peers may give children with reputations as
academically capable more response opportunities when working in groups and may
approach them more often for help with academic problems. They also may offer
more support and acceptance to children perceived as academically competent.
Indeed, peer perceptions of ability are associated with their liking for
classmates (Ladd et al., 1999),
especially in classrooms in which cues regarding students’ performance are more
available (Hughes & Zhang, 2007).
Peer Group Influence also affects a child’s
friendships. Children tend to select friends and social networks based on
similar levels of academic achievement and achievement motivation (Kindermann, 1993; Kiuru, Aunola, Murmi, Leskinen, & Salmela-Aro, 2007). Thus, children with reputations as
academically capable may be more likely to affiliate with high achieving peers.
Longitudinal studies suggest that the academic characteristics of one’s friends
may influence a child’s academic engagement and achievement (Altermatt & Pomerantz, 2003; Berndt, Laychak, & Park, 1990; Kiuru et al., 2007).
Hurlock (1975) the influence of a peer group is intensified by the
person’s desire to be an accepted member of the peer group. To achieve this
desire he tries to conform in everyday to the patterns approved by the group.
When group members are attached to their groups, they are motivated to behave
in accordance with the wishes of the group and in ways which would make them
accepted, this motivation is attributes to peer group influence. In school the
peer group maybe a dominant factor to consider in academic achievement.
Acceptance by the group depends on conformity. Most education takes place in
group situations the group’s impacts and influence on its members is so strong
that it takes the group as a whole to support the learning process.
A peer group is a learning group most education takes place in group
situations the group impact and influence on its members is so strong that it
pushes the group as a whole to support a learning process.
2.2 Theoretical frame work
Bandura's social learning Theory
Bandura's social learning theory speaks precisely to the
human interactions involved in learning. Observational or "vicarious"
learning is based upon learning by watching then "modelling" or
acting similarly to others. If the student views and works with people who
appreciate learning by engaging in learning activities, then the student too
will engage in learning and might work harder at learning. Peers with positive
attitudes and behaviours toward education will allow and teach each other to
set goals that include opportunities to learn and achieve. If peer models do
not convey positive attitudes toward learning, then the students observing
these models will not prioritize learning in their own lives. They will learn
to prioritize other goals. (Bandura, 1996).
Bandura (1996) Social cognitive theory also emphasizes
the importance of cognitive representations in the form of expectations about
social norms that arise from observational and experiential learning. Reasoned
action (Fishbein and Ajzen 1975) emphasizes the importance of perceived social
(subjective) norms on intentions.
Social Bonding Theory
Hirschi (1969) in his explanation of Oetting and Donnermeyer
(1998) social bonding theories suggest that adolescent peer group effects will
be stronger in the absence of strong social bonds with family and school. Social
identity theory (Terry, Hogg, and White, 2000) suggests that adolescents try on
various identities and adopt the norms that are central to the social identity
of the peer group to remain in good standing. Similarly, social exchange theory
(Kelley and Thibaut 1985) argues that friendships and group
membership requires fair exchanges (reciprocity), leading to conformity of
behaviour between friends and group members. Of course, the nature of the
relationships of group members greatly influences the nature of this
reciprocity (Plickert,
Cote, and Wellman 2007). Social network theory suggests that social norms
are shaped by information shared among members of a social system (Scott 2000; Valente 1995). Norms also figure prominently in
the literature on persuasion and social marketing (Hastings and Saren 2003). Indeed, social influence is the
basis for two-stage communication strategies in which persuasive communications
are directed not at the ultimate target, but at opinion leaders whose attitudes
and behaviour influence others in their social groups (Rogers, 2003).
Social Identity theory
Social Identity theory proposes that an individual’s self
concept is
influenced
by the “ingroups” he or she belongs to. Individuals
are motivated to attach positive evaluations to their ingroups when compared
with “outgroups”
with whom they do not have a relationship. Positive associations one attaches
to an ingroup may then extend to having a positive self concept and high self
esteem. The important role of peer groups in the development of identity must
be monitored within the peer program context to ensure that peer-based programs
do not reinforce negative identity and negative role stereotypes associated
with the target group. Without monitoring and guidance, participants may begin
to dwell on issues and adopt the identity of ‘being a teenage mum’ or ‘being a
gay or lesbian youth’ rather than constructing more positive identity
descriptions and roles e.g. being a positive role model for others, advocating
for equal rights. (Tajfel and Turner, 1979).
Attachment theory
Cotterell, (1996) in his explanation of Attachment
theory in relation to peer influence states that in bonding with peer groups
the person experiences a sense of belonging and endorsement, a ‘sense of place’
in the group and the secure feeling of being ‘at home’ with her/his mates or
chums” Peer groups supply positive emotional experiences to their members
through acceptance and recognition of the individual. They provide a sense of
belonging and solidarity within the group which confirms their group identity”.
Maslow's model
Maslow (1954) viewed the need for love and
belongingness as a step toward achievement in his hierarchy of motivation
model, which he described in. In this view, the deprivation of more basic needs
hinders progress along the path to achievement. In Maslow's model, people must
have love and belongingness issues satisfied in order to address needs of
achievement. For example, a student with deprived relationship concerns will be
less able to participate in classroom learning opportunities. The ability to
learn is built on a foundation of comfortable relationships with others,
including peers and family, and classroom learning is all about learning with
and in the presence of others.
Expectancy by value Theory
Expectancy by value theory define motivation as the
product of the amount of success on a task that an individual expects to earn
times the amount of value the individual places on the task. Thus, a task that
the individual values and expects to be successful at will be motivating
compared to a task with lower expected success or value. Whereas past
experience can predict the expectancy aspect of this model (e.g., the student
has done well on prior essay exams), the value placed on the task is more
mediated by outside factors, such as peers and family (e.g., the student's
opinions are respected). Related motivational theories include the incentive or
rewarding aspects of motivation, which may also stem from relationships with
others. (Eccles, 1983).
Behaviourism Theory
Behaviourism provides one way to explain the
association between motivation to learn and peers interactions. In basic
behaviourist theories, relationships between people affect learning only as
much as people reinforce each other (or not) in the academic arena. For
example, if the peer group encourages education and learning, then the
individual student within that group will value learning, because the
individual is reinforced, or rewarded, for behaviour that indicates that
learning is valued. Students in peer groups that do not value education lack
the stimulation and reinforcement needed to encourage personal learning. These
peer groups presumably stimulate and reinforce other values.
Vygotsky (1978) also presented ideas on the
facilitation of learning through experiences mediated by other people. In his
explanations, the learner cannot reach full potential without the aid of
others. The processes of guiding the learner to higher stages of cognitive
functioning rely on interactive human relationships. Mentors–for example, teachers
or more capable peers–can raise the student's competence through the zone of
proximal development (ZPD). ZPD is defined as the gap between what a student
can do alone and what the student can achieve with assistance. In this view
assistance is transitional, a "scaffold" that is removed when it is
no longer needed and the student has internalized another's support.
In summary, varied theories agree that the values and
attitudes of the peer group are essential elements in motivation and learning.
Students who surround themselves with academically focused, goal-oriented peers
will be more likely to appreciate, internalize, and exhibit these features
themselves.
2.3 Empirical Studies
Empirical
evidence shows links between peer relationships and academic performances. (Ladd, 1990; Ladd,
Kochenderfer, & Coleman 1996). The research conducted by NAEP (1998) asked a most interesting question
to gauge the effect of peers on academic achievement. The survey asked the
child to strongly agree, agree, disagree, or strongly disagree with the
following statement: "My friends make fun of people who try to do well in
school." This
question is particularly useful in measuring the effect of peers on academic
achievement. First, it focuses on the group of children with which the sampled
child most closely associates. Second, it does not ask whether the child's
friends make fun of him or her, which would be more likely to elicit a
defensive or otherwise inaccurate answer ("My friends do not make fun of
me").
A study conducted by Johnson (2000) revealed that peer effects become
more important as time passes, peaking somewhere during adolescence. At the
same time, children must foster positive peer groups early in order to become
well-adjusted adolescents and adults. Having friends in school allows the child
to learn a host of skills: group interaction, conflict resolution, and trust
building, among others. Without positive peer group interactions, serious
social problems may develop. Peer rejection in early childhood and early adolescence,
for example, is a good predictor of social and academic problems later.
Goethe
(2001) found out that weak students do better when grouped with other weak
students. It shows that students’ performance improves if they are with the
students of their own kind. Sacerdote (2001) found that students’ grades tend
to be higher when students have unusually strong academic peers. The results of
Zimmerman (2003) were somehow contradictory to Goethe results but again it
proved that student’s performance depends on a number of factors. Having
friends allows the child to learn many skills: group interaction, conflict
resolution and trust building. Peer rejection during adolescence is a good
predictor of social and academic problems (Buhrmester, 1990).
Wentzel
and Caldwell (1997; Wentzel, 2003), conducted a similar line of research on
peer relationships and academic performance, but focused on the middle the limited research on younger children, it
seemed reasonable to on adolescents in this review. Wentzel and Caldwell
(1997) further provide support of the linkage between
peer relationships and academic performance. In the second portion of their
two-part, longitudinal study, these researchers followed 404 children from the
beginning of sixth-grade to eighth-grade in order to explore peer relations and
academic performance. An index of academic was
based on end of the year GPAs (averaged english, science, social studies and
maths final grades). Final grades were
obtained from school records at the end of grade and eighth-grade academic
years and were coded (0=failing grade, 1= D, 2=C, 3=B and 4=A). Reciprocated friendships were measured by
obtaining best friend nominations. Children were given a list of same-sex
classmates and were asked to circle their three best friends. Students’
nominations were matched with peers’ nomination in order to see which
friendships were reciprocated. Peer acceptance was measured by using a rating
system in which children indicated how much they liked to participate in school
activities with particular peers by rating them on a 5-point scale (1=not at
all, 5 = very much). Results suggest that reciprocated friendships, peer
acceptance and group membership are significantly related to academic
performance.
Further
evidence supporting the relation between sociometric status adjustments
suggests that being a member of a particular status group predicts changes in
academic adjustment over time.
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